Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) was a Soviet psychologist whose work in cultural-historical psychology contributed to the foundations of contemporary developmental [psychology] theory. Vygotsky proposed that human psychological development emerged through a [social] process of interpersonal connections and communication. Vygotsky’s career was short, he died young of TB, but his work can be divided into three periods:
1. Instrumental Period/cultural mediation and internalization- (early 1920s) through his studies of child development Vygotsky identified human psychological development as occurring through use of psychological ‘instruments’ or tools (my terminology) analogous to those used in labor and industry. These tools, in what is known as ‘instrumental psychology’, help to mediate the knowledge of a culture through process called ‘internalization’ and ‘appropriation’. Internalization, or ‘knowing how’, can be applied to basic, daily functions (ex. pouring a cup of liquid) which must be learned from the outside as no innately internal knowledge is possessed by the child. Through practice (repetition) the function is internalized, and at the point where the function becomes so internalized by the child it can be said he or she has ‘made it his/her own’ by applying it in a unique way it has been ‘appropriated’.
2. Crisis, criticism and self-criticism- (mid 1920s-1932) an attempt to reconcile the natural, objectivist science of psychology with Marxist philosophy to form a general Marxist psychology. “He argued that if one wanted to build a truly Marxist Psychology, there were no shortcuts to be found by merely looking for applicable quotes in Marx' writings. Rather one should look for a methodology that was in accordance with the Marxian spirit.[5]” cited from Kozulin, Alex. 1986. "Vygotsky in Context" in Vygotsky L. "Thought and Language", MIT Press. pp. xi - lvii In this period he collaborated with Alexander Luria and others researching the development of higher cognitive functions from primal psychological development from three different angles: 1. Instrumental (using objects to mediate) 2. Developmental (how children acquire higher cognitive function), and 3. Cultural-historical (how cultural and social interactions shape forms of mediation and developmental paths). In this period Vygotsky revised his earlier thinking of the separation of ‘lower’ and ‘higher’ cognitive function; favored the role of language over emotion; and in general appears to have been caught up in the political atmosphere of criticism/self-criticism in the Soviet Union of that period.
3. Holistic- (1932-1934) attempt to radically revise his original theory through insight provided by Gestalt Psychology to work towards a psychology of consciousness, this was cut short by his death; remains unfinished, but was taken up by others (Bruner) after Vygotsky’s research was reintroduced to the West in the mid-1950s.
- Zone of Proximal Development- range of tasks the child is in the process of learning to complete, way to explain the relationship between child’s learning and cognitive development. Key is learning precedes development, unlike previous theories that had the relationship as reversed [Piaget]. For this to happen there needs to be another (adult/older person) who guides the learning process to a higher level. This would be termed ‘scaffolding’ by Wood, Bruner and Ross, 1976.
Thinking and Speech- examination of the interrelationship of language development and thought. (Book is collection of Vygotsky's writings published posthumously 1934 USSR, first English translation publication 1962). Social development of thought- internal speech develops out of the process of external, social interactions; a process of ‘internalization’.
Vygotsky's theory differs from that of Piaget in a number of important ways:
1: Vygotsky places more emphasis on culture affecting cognitive development This contradicts Piaget's view of universal stages and content of development (Vygotsky does not refer to stages in the way that Piaget does). Hence Vygotsky assumes cognitive development varies across cultures, whereas Piaget states cognitive development is mostly universal across cultures.
2: Vygotsky places considerably more emphasis on social factors contributing to cognitive development (i) Vygotsky states cognitive development stems from social interactions from guided learning within the zone of proximal development as children and their partners co-construct knowledge. In contrast Piaget maintains that cognitive development stems largely from independent explorations in which children construct knowledge of their own. (ii) For Vygotsky, the environment in which children grow up will influence how they think and what they think about.
3: Vygotsky places more (and different) emphasis on the role of language in cognitive development According to Piaget, language depends on thought for its development (i.e. thought comes before language). For Vygotsky, thought and language are initially separate systems from the beginning of life, merging at around three years of age, producing verbal thought (inner speech). For Vygotsky, cognitive development results from an internalization of language.
4: According to Vygotsky adults are an important source of cognitive development Adults transmit their culture's tools of intellectual adaptation that children internalize. In contrast Piaget emphasizes the importance of peers as peer interaction promotes social perspective taking.
Sources:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lev_Vygotsky
Actual Minds, Possible Worlds. Jerome Bruner. Harvard University Press. Cambridge, MA. 1987.
https://www.simplypsychology.org/vygotsky.html
http://www.childdevelopmentmedia.com/articles/play-the-work-of-lev-vygotsky/